Feminisation of Migration; Historical Aspects, Contemporary Trends and Socio-economic Empowerment of Women (Article)

Migration is a multi-faceted experience with social, economic, and personal development opportunities. Gender-specific migration also has different dynamics. This paper explores the gender-specific trends and impacts of migration on women. It explores the historical context, pushing features, and patterns of the women migration in Pakistan by focusing on how these types of trends have changed over time. The Sindh province of Pakistan has become the main place to migrate due to the country’s economic hub, Karachi, so this paper also discusses women’s social and economic empowerment as a result of migration by discussing the insights from the Sindh province of Pakistan. Contemporary trends of migration show key challenges like gender discrimination and limited access to resources or educational opportunities, and societal norms also control the economic opportunities for women. Despite these challenges, women establish notable resilience and adaptive behaviour, being part of many economic activities in formal and informal sectors. This paper is based on the structured literature review and uses the PRISMA model for systematic review and analyses of the literature. The application of these tools helped to have comprehensive coverage of the literature on gendered dimensions and social and economic impacts of migration of women for this paper. The analysis highlights the necessity for inclusive policies that encourage gender equality and empowerment of migrated women by ensuring access to education, resources, and legal support mechanisms.

1.       INTRODUCTION

Pakistan is one of the countries facing the problem of increasing urbanisation; rural-to-urban migration is increasing, and people are migrating mainly to big cities and economic hubs. The labour market in Pakistan is also segmented along gender lines. It is mainly observed that women migrate mainly for family reasons, especially marital reasons. Though in the majority of women, the trend of migration as “tied migration” has been observed more as compared to migrating for economic reasons, this trend does not ensure the woman’s participation in the labour market. But at the same time, their existing participation in formal or informal sectors before migration might not be encouraging, while participation after migration mostly increases (Memon, 2017). In Pakistan, women face issues of unequal social and political participation (Ghafoor & Haider, 2018), gender discrimination, social suppression and feudalism-based domestic violence (Khan & Bibi, 2011) in the rural areas. These are among the push factors of migration from rural to urban areas (Khan & Bibi, 2011).                          

Social division of spaces in Pakistani society is gendered; the public place is for the males, while for the females, there is only a private sphere. Although there is a range between these two polar positions depending upon factors, including social class, age, and geographical location, the division based on gender exists in some or most of the forms. This type of social division leaves a contrasting impact (Khan, 2023), these factors together impact migration decisions, trends, as well as socioeconomic lives of women due to rural to urban migrations. The study by (Ferdoos, 2005) found that female participation in the labour market in Pakistan had increased due to increased employment opportunities. That has increased further, and women have started claiming their rights and migrating out of their homes to other job stations to achieve economic independence and equal social status with men. Today, females are found in a wide range of occupations, not only specific occupations like teachers and doctors. Women’s socio-economic status has changed due to their entry into the labour market. However, there are still challenges to women’s social status due to their engagement in economic activities, but that varies from rural to urban or family to family.

In Pakistan’s case, the process of internal migration is an old phenomenon (Perveen, 1993). Due to internal migration, not only employment opportunities but also the socio-economic conditions of migrant households have improved. The nature and volume of internal migration varied over time (Khan, 1981). The impact of migration on women’s empowerment is evident in how it boosts their access to education and economic resources, leading to autonomy and status within their communities. Migrant women play a role by making social contributions, aiding in the exchange of ideas and cultural practices that promote economic and social progress (ODI, 2016). The socio-economic status of migrated women also changes by their increased earnings with formal engagement in the labour market (Ram, et al. 2024). The migration results in better economic opportunities and it is important for women to have financial freedom (Qaisrani, 2020). The gendered aspect of migration poses challenges for women, including mobility, limited healthcare access, and sociocultural barriers that impede their economic participation. Women left behind in areas due to outmigration often shoulder increased agricultural responsibilities but face constraints due to limited resources and training that affect their productivity and empowerment (IRRI, 2024). Therefore, while migration can offer opportunities for women, it necessitates policies tailored to address the vulnerabilities and obstacles encountered by migrant women (UN Women, 2023).

This research paper aimed to broadly explore the complex aspects of women’s migration based on two main objectives. Firstly, the paper has explored the historical context, pushing features, and patterns of the women migration in Pakistan by focusing on how these types of trends have changed over time. Secondly, the study has assessed the social and economic empowerment of women as a result of migration by discussing the insights from the Sindh province of Pakistan, further highlighting the impact of migration on women in terms of shifts in their societal roles, changes in social status, their access to educational and employment gains. The paper discusses insights from Sindh province because Sindh province has become the main place to migrate due to the country’s economic hub, Karachi (Mahmud, et al. 2010). The province has a predominantly rural population, with agriculture being a major source of livelihood for many communities. However, in recent decades, Sindh has undergone significant economic and social changes, which have influenced migration patterns, including women’s migration (Britannica, 2024). The structured literature review has supported the study to ensure a detailed and unbiased analysis of the available and existing literature on the topic. Using the PRISMA model, systematically searching, choosing, and organising related studies, the study focused on identifying the key patterns and themes. The method was useful for evaluating the gendered dimensions, historical trends, and social and economic impacts of migration.

2.       LITERATURE REVIEW AND SCOPE OF STUDY

Migration is a multi-faceted experience that includes social, economic, and personal development opportunities. However, at the same time, it also encompasses the risks of abuse, exploitation, and violence. Acknowledging the social effects of migration in the region of origin is the first step towards adopting the measures and policies needed for identifying and addressing the vulnerabilities, whether as members of migrant households or migrants themselves. There can be different migration scenarios, for example, where the men or women migrate independently, or there can be another scenario where men and women migrate together as a parental couple. In both such scenarios, there are impacts on the dynamics of family and gender roles as well as on the whole community (IOM, 2009).

The societal norms and expectations from the families heavily restrict women’s abilities to migrate for work, and many women are afraid of leaving familiar surroundings even if they get better economic opportunities (Khan, 2020). Women’s migration, especially the migration of young women in terms of independent migration, is increasing internally as a kind of survival strategy for supporting themselves and their families (UN Women, 2022). Internal migration is mainly in long-distance and rural-to-urban directions. The major reasons for urban migration in Pakistan include lower employment opportunities in rural areas, inadequate income generation sources and less development in rural areas (Mohammad, et al. 2012). The rural-to-urban migration also has a great impact on the social, cultural, and economic dimensions of the migrant’s life and destination (Malik, 2015). Another important role of migration to urban units is an increase in higher incomes, investments in human capital, and acquirement of household assets (Basa, et al. 2009).

In the Sindh province of Pakistan, the context of women’s migration has broadly changed post-1990s, and there has been an increase in the number of women labour migrants to cities. In rural families, social and financial stresses are common drivers for the women labour migrants to the cities. There are other contributing factors that drive the women migrants, including poor health, education, or other basic facilities, which result in the women’s labour migrations to the cities (Nadir, et al. 2024). There is a different context of women labour migration post-migration at the urban units where they face different kinds of issues, including social isolation, poor working conditions, or low wages leading to their low quality of life (Munir & Khalid, 2012).  In the rural scenario of Sindh province, societal restrictions and patriarchal norms restrict the job choices of women and their economic participation. In most cases, the rural women in Sindh are engaged in working in agricultural fields (Panhwar, et al. 2021) or working on home-based work like handicrafts (Nizamani, et al. 2019) on daily wages. However, migration has led to easing the lives of women migrants in urban areas. They are comfortable with having basic facilities of daily life and also easing the financial burdens because of having earning opportunities for them (Iqbal, et al. 2018). 

Based on the discussion on the overall context of the literature review, some studies measured migration in terms of empowerment, some measured migration as a result of natural disasters, and some studies focused on the issues and challenges faced by migrants at the destination. Some studies focused especially on the health of the migrated population at their destination. Looking at all these studies on different dimensions, there were still gaps in understanding the detailed experiences and effects of women’s migration, particularly in Pakistan, and discussing the context of women’s migration in Sindh because many existing studies tend to generalise the factors that influence migration without considering the aspects and specific socio-economic contexts. While there are some studies on the trends of migration in Pakistan, there is a lack of analysis focusing on the unique experiences of women and the reasons behind their migration over time. Moreover, migration’s social and economic impacts on women in Sindh province, especially regarding their standing in societal roles, educational progressions, and job opportunities, have not been thoroughly explored. This research aimed to address these gaps by investigating the gender experiences of migration, the historical patterns of women’s migration in Pakistan, and the socio-economic consequences for women in Sindh province. The study has specifically focused on two objectives: (1) To investigate the historical aspects and patterns of women migration and factors leading towards the women migration in Pakistan, and (2) To evaluate the socio-economic impacts of migration of women in terms of effects on social status, societal roles, educational gains, and employment opportunities in Sindh province of Pakistan.